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Pronunciations adenosine adrenaline arrhythmia atrial atrial fibrillation atrioventricular node bradycardia digoxin electrocardiography epinephrine fibrillation fibrosis hyperthyroidism hypothyroidism intraocular pressure noradrenaline norepinephrine phenytoin syncope tachycardia ventricular ventricular fibrillation ventricular tachycardia

Abnormal heart rhythms (arrhythmias) are sequences of heartbeats that are irregular, too fast, too slow, or conducted via an abnormal electrical pathway through the heart.

• Heart disorders are the most common cause of an abnormal heart rhythm.
• Sometimes people are aware of abnormal heart rhythms, but many times they feel only their consequences, such as weakness or fainting.
• The diagnosis is based on electrocardiography (ECG).
• Treatment involves restoring the heart to a normal rhythm and preventing further episodes.

The heart is a muscular organ with four chambers designed to work efficiently, reliably, and continuously over a lifetime. The muscular walls of each chamber contract in a regulated sequence, pumping blood as required by the body while expending as little energy as possible during each heartbeat.

Contraction of the muscle fibers in the heart is controlled by electricity that flows through the heart in a precise manner along distinct pathways and at a controlled speed. The electrical current that begins each heartbeat originates in the heart's pacemaker (sinus or sinoatrial node), located in the top of the upper right heart chamber (right atrium). The rate at which the pacemaker discharges the electrical current determines the heart rate. This rate is influenced by nerve impulses and by levels of certain hormones in the bloodstream.

The heart rate is regulated automatically by the autonomic nervous system (see Biology of the Nervous System: Autonomic Nervous System), which consists of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions. The sympathetic division increases the heart rate through a network of nerves called the sympathetic plexus. The parasympathetic division decreases the heart rate through a single nerve, the vagus nerve.

Heart rate is also influenced by hormones released into the bloodstream by the sympathetic division: epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine (noradrenaline), which increase the heart rate. Thyroid hormone, which is released into the bloodstream by the thyroid gland, also increases the heart rate.

In an adult at rest, the normal heart rate is usually between 60 and 100 beats per minute. However, lower rates may be normal in young adults, particularly those who are physically fit. A person's heart rate varies normally in response to exercise and such stimuli as pain and anger. Heart rhythm is considered abnormal only when the heart rate is inappropriately fast (called tachycardia), slow (called bradycardia), or irregular or when electrical impulses travel along abnormal pathways.

Normal Electrical Pathway

The electrical current from the pacemaker flows first through the right atrium and then through the left atrium, causing the muscles of these chambers to contract and blood to be pumped from the atria into the lower heart chambers (ventricles). The electrical current then reaches the atrioventricular node, located in the lower part of the wall between the atria near the ventricles. The atrioventricular node provides the only electrical connection between the atria and ventricles; otherwise, the atria are insulated from the ventricles by tissue that does not conduct electricity. The atrioventricular node delays transmission of the electrical current so that the atria can contract completely and the ventricles can fill with as much blood as possible before the ventricles are electrically signaled to contract.

Tracing the Heart's Electrical Pathway The sinoatrial node (1) initiates an electrical impulse that flows through the right and left atria (2), making them contract. When the electrical impulse reaches the atrioventricular node (3), it is delayed slightly. The impulse then travels down the bundle of His (4), which divides into the right bundle branch for the right ventricle (5) and the left bundle branch for the left ventricle (5). The impulse then spreads through the ventricles, making them contract.

After passing through the atrioventricular node, the electrical current travels down the bundle of His, a group of fibers that divide into a left bundle branch for the left ventricle and a right bundle branch for the right ventricle. The electrical current then spreads in a regulated manner over the surface of the ventricles, from the bottom up, initiating contraction of the ventricles, which ejects blood from the heart.

Causes

The most common cause of arrhythmias is a heart disorder, particularly coronary artery disease, heart valve disorders, and heart failure. Many drugs, prescription or nonprescription, including those used to treat heart disorders, can lead to arrhythmias. Some arrhythmias are caused by anatomic abnormalities present at birth (congenital birth defects). Age-related changes in the heart's electrical system make some arrhythmias more likely. An overactive thyroid gland (hyperthyroidism), producing high levels of thyroid hormone, may cause fast arrhythmias. An underactive thyroid gland (hypothyroidism), producing low levels of thyroid hormone, may cause slow arrhythmias. Sometimes no cause for an arrhythmia can be identified.

Fast arrhythmias (tachyarrhythmias) may be triggered by exercise, emotional stress, excessive alcohol consumption, smoking, or use of drugs that contain stimulants, such as cold and hay fever remedies. Slow arrhythmias (bradyarrhythmias) may be triggered by pain, hunger, fatigue, digestive disorders (such as diarrhea and vomiting), or swallowing, which can stimulate the vagus nerve excessively. (With enough stimulation, which is rare, the vagus nerve can cause the heart to stop.) In most of these circumstances, the arrhythmia tends to resolve on its own.

Symptoms

Some people who have abnormal heartbeats may be aware of them. However, awareness of heartbeats (called palpitations) varies widely among people. Some people can feel normal heartbeats, and most people can feel heartbeats when they lie on their left side.

ECG: Reading the Waves

Arrhythmias have consequences that range from harmless to life threatening. The seriousness of an arrhythmia may not be closely linked with the severity of the symptoms it causes. Some life-threatening arrhythmias cause no symptoms, and some otherwise inconsequential arrhythmias may cause severe symptoms. Often, the nature and severity of the underlying heart disorder are more important than the arrhythmia itself

When arrhythmias impair the heart's ability to pump blood, they can produce weakness, a reduced capacity for exercise, shortness of breath, light-headedness, dizziness, and fainting (syncope—see Low Blood Pressure: Fainting). Fainting occurs when the heart is pumping so inefficiently that it can no longer maintain adequate blood pressure. If such an arrhythmia persists, death may result. Arrhythmias may also aggravate the symptoms of an underlying heart disorder, including chest pain and shortness of breath. Arrhythmias that produce symptoms require prompt attention.

Diagnosis

Often, a person's description of symptoms can help doctors make a preliminary diagnosis and determine the severity of the arrhythmia. The most important considerations are whether the palpitations are fast or slow, regular or irregular, or brief or prolonged and whether the arrhythmia produces symptoms. Doctors also need to know whether the palpitations occur at rest or only during strenuous or unusual activity and whether they start and stop suddenly or gradually. However, certain diagnostic procedures are often needed to determine the exact nature of the arrhythmia and its cause.

Electrocardiography (ECG—see Symptoms and Diagnosis of Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders: Electrocardiography) is the main diagnostic procedure for detecting arrhythmias and determining their cause. This procedure provides a graphic representation of the electrical current producing each heartbeat. Usually, ECG records the heart rhythm for only a very short time. Because arrhythmias are often intermittent, a portable ECG monitor (Holter monitor—see Holter Monitor: Continuous ECG Readings) may be used to record heart rhythm continuously or when the wearer senses an abnormal heart rhythm and activates the monitor. This monitor, usually worn for 24 hours, can record sporadic arrhythmias as the person engages in normal daily activities. During the 24-hour period, the person also keeps a diary of symptoms and activities, which are correlated with the arrhythmias. To detect dangerous arrhythmias that occur very infrequently, doctors sometimes implant a recording device under the skin below the left collarbone (clavicle). The device can be left in place for long periods. It electronically transmits stored recordings of abnormal heart rhythms painlessly through the skin.

People with suspected life-threatening arrhythmias are usually hospitalized. Their heart rhythm is continuously recorded and displayed on a television-type monitor by the bedside or at the nursing station. Thus, any problems can be identified promptly.

Other diagnostic procedures include exercise stress testing (ECG) and blood pressure measurement during exercise—see Symptoms and Diagnosis of Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders: Exercise Stress Testing) and electrophysiologic testing (see Symptoms and Diagnosis of Heart and Blood Vessel Disorders: Electrophysiologic Testing). During electrophysiologic testing, catheters with tiny electrodes at their tip are inserted through a vein and threaded into the heart. The electrodes are used to stimulate the heart, and the heart's response is monitored, so that the type of arrhythmia and the preferred treatment options can be determined.

Prognosis

Most arrhythmias neither cause symptoms nor interfere with the heart's ability to pump blood. Thus, they usually pose little or no risk, although they can cause considerable anxiety if a person becomes aware of them. However, some arrhythmias, harmless in themselves, can lead to more serious arrhythmias. Any arrhythmia that impairs the heart's ability to pump blood adequately is serious. How serious depends in part on whether the arrhythmia originates in the heart's normal pacemaker, in the atria, or in the ventricles. Generally, arrhythmias that originate in the ventricles are more serious than those that originate in the atria, which are more serious than those that originate in the pacemaker. However, there are many exceptions.

Treatment

For people who have a harmless yet worrisome arrhythmia, reassurance that the arrhythmia is harmless may be treatment enough. Sometimes arrhythmias occur less often or even stop when doctors change a person's drugs or adjust the dosages. Avoiding alcohol, caffeine (in beverages and foods), or smoking may also help. Avoiding strenuous exercise may help if palpitations occur only with exercise.

Drugs: Antiarrhythmic drugs are useful for suppressing fast arrhythmias that cause intolerable symptoms or pose a risk. No single drug cures all arrhythmias in all people. Sometimes several drugs must be tried until the response is satisfactory. Sometimes antiarrhythmic drugs can worsen or even cause arrhythmias. This effect is called proarrhythmia. Antiarrhythmic drugs also produce other side effects.

Pacemakers: Artificial pacemakers are electronic devices that act in place of the heart's own pacemaker. These devices are implanted surgically under the skin, usually below the left or right collarbone. They are connected to the heart by wires running inside a vein. Because of new low-energy circuitry and battery designs, these units now last about 10 to 15 years. New circuitry has almost completely eliminated the risk of interference from cell phones, automobile ignition systems, radar, microwaves, and airport security detectors. However, some equipment may interfere with pacemakers. Examples are machines used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and in diathermy (physical therapy in which heat is applied to muscles).

Keeping the Beat: Artificial Pacemakers Artificial pacemakers are electronic devices that act in place of the heart's natural pacemaker (the sinus or sinoatrial node). They generate electrical impulses that initiate each heartbeat. Pacemakers consist of a battery, an impulse generator, and wires that connect the pacemaker to the heart. An artificial pacemaker is implanted surgically. After a local anesthetic is used to numb the insertion site, the wires that connect the pacemaker are usually inserted into a vein near the collarbone and threaded toward the heart. Through a small incision, the impulse generator, which is about the size of a silver dollar, is inserted just under the skin near the collarbone and connected to the wires. The incision is stitched closed. Usually, the procedure takes about 30 to 60 minutes. The person may be able to go home shortly afterward or may stay in the hospital for a few days. The battery for a pacemaker usually lasts 10 to 15 years. Nevertheless, the battery should be checked regularly. Battery replacement is a quick procedure. There are different types of pacemakers. Some take over the control of the heart rate, overriding the electrical impulses generated by the heart. Others, called demand pacemakers, allow the heart to beat naturally unless it skips a beat or begins to beat at an abnormal rate. Still others, called programmable pacemakers, can do either. Some pacemakers can adjust their rate depending on the wearer's activity, increasing the heart rate during exercise and decreasing it during rest.

Artificial Pacemaker

The most common use of pacemakers is to treat slow arrhythmias. When the heart slows below a set threshold, the artificial pacemaker begins to produce electrical impulses. Less commonly, pacemakers are used to treat fast arrhythmias by delivering a series of impulses to decrease the heart rate.

Restoring Normal Rhythm: Sometimes an electrical shock to the heart can stop a fast arrhythmia and restore normal rhythm. Using an electrical shock for this purpose is called cardioversion, defibrillation, or electroversion. Cardioversion may be used for arrhythmias starting in the atria or the ventricles. The machine that delivers the shock (a defibrillator) is used by a team of doctors and nurses, by paramedics, or by firefighters.

An implantable cardioverter-defibrillator (ICD), which is about one half the size of a deck of cards, can be implanted. Most devices are implanted through the blood vessels just as a pacemaker is, thus eliminating the need for open chest surgery. ICDs continually monitor the rate and rhythm of the heart, automatically detect fast arrhythmias, and deliver a shock to convert the arrhythmia back to a normal rhythm. Most commonly, these devices are used in people who might otherwise die of the arrhythmia. An ICD can also act like a pacemaker, sending electrical impulses to overcome a slow arrhythmia. When an ICD delivers a shock, it can feel like a mild thump in the chest. When a stronger shock is given, people may feel as if they have been kicked. People who have ICDs can safely be around most home electronic devices, including microwaves, and airport security detectors. However, some equipment with strong magnetic fields or strong electric fields may interfere with ICDs. Examples are machines used in magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) and in diathermy (physical therapy in which heat is applied to muscles). Because implantable defibrillators do not prevent arrhythmias, drugs often must be taken as well. These devices last for about 5 years.

Cardioversion

A newer type of defibrillator, called an automated external defibrillator (AED), requires only minimal training for its use. For example, AEDs can be used by people who receive first-aid instruction in its use (see Automated External Defibrillator: Jump-Starting the Heart). AEDs can detect the presence of an arrhythmia, determine if a shock is advisable, and deliver the shock automatically. They are being placed in many public places, such as airports, sports arenas, hotels, and shopping malls.

Destroying Abnormal Tissue: Certain types of arrhythmias can be controlled by performing surgical and other invasive procedures. An arrhythmia due to a localized abnormal area in the heart's electrical system can be controlled by destroying or removing that area (ablation). Most often, the abnormal area is destroyed by radiofrequency ablation (delivery of energy of a specific frequency through an electrode catheter inserted in the heart). This procedure is successful in 90 to 95% of people, takes 2 to 4 hours, and requires only 1 to 2 days in the hospital. Less commonly, the area is destroyed or removed during open-heart surgery.

Some Drugs Used to Treat Arrhythmias Examples Some Side Effects Comments Sodium channel blockers DisopyramideSome Trade Names NORPACE FlecainideSome Trade Names TAMBOCOR LidocaineSome Trade Names XYLOCAINE MexiletineSome Trade Names MEXITIL MoricizineSome Trade Names ETHMOZINE PhenytoinSome Trade Names DILANTIN ProcainamideSome Trade Names PROCAN SR PRONESTYL PropafenoneSome Trade Names RYTHMOL QuinidineSome Trade Names CARDIOQUIN QUINAGLUTE TocainideSome Trade Names TONOCARD Arrhythmias (which can be fatal, particularly in people who have a heart disorder) Digestive upset Dizziness Light-headedness Tremor Retention of urine Increased intraocular pressure in people who have glaucoma Dry mouth These drugs slow the conduction of electrical impulses through the heart. These drugs are used to treat ventricular premature beats, ventricular tachycardia, and ventricular fibrillation and to convert atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter to normal rhythm (cardioversion). Beta-blockers AtenololSome Trade Names TENORMIN BisoprololSome Trade Names ZEBETA MetoprololSome Trade Names LOPRESSOR TOPROL-XL NadololSome Trade Names CORGARD PropranololSome Trade Names INDERAL An abnormally slow heart rate (bradycardia) Heart failure Spasm of the airways (bronchospasm) Possible masking of low blood sugar levels Impaired circulation in the trunk, arms, and legs Insomnia Shortness of breath Depression Raynaud's phenomenon Fatigue Sexual dysfunction Fatigue With some beta-blockers, an increase in the triglyceride level These drugs are used to treat ventricular premature beats, ventricular tachycardia, ventricular fibrillation, and paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. They are also used to slow the ventricular rate in people with atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter. People who have asthma should not take these drugs. Potassium channel blockers AmiodaroneSome Trade Names CORDARONE BretyliumSome Trade Names BRETYLOL IbutilideSome Trade Names CORVENT SotalolSome Trade Names BETAPACE Arrhythmias, low blood pressure (all) For amiodaroneSome Trade Names CORDARONE , scarring in the lungs (pulmonary fibrosis) For sotalolSome Trade Names BETAPACE (also a beta-blocker), also the same side effects as beta-blockers These drugs are used to treat ventricular premature beats, ventricular tachycardia, ventricular fibrillation, atrial fibrillation, and atrial flutter. Because amiodaroneSome Trade Names CORDARONE can be toxic, it is used for long-term treatment only in some people who have serious or very bothersome arrhythmias. BretyliumSome Trade Names BRETYLOL is used only for short-term treatment of life-threatening ventricular tachycardias. Calcium channel blockers DiltiazemSome Trade Names CARDIZEM DILACOR VerapamilSome Trade Names CALAN ISOPTIN Constipation Diarrhea Low blood pressure Swollen feet Only certain calcium channel blockers, such as diltiazemSome Trade Names CARDIZEM DILACOR and verapamilSome Trade Names CALAN ISOPTIN , are useful. They are used to slow the ventricular rate in people who have atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter and to treat paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. DiltiazemSome Trade Names CARDIZEM DILACOR and verapamilSome Trade Names CALAN ISOPTIN slow the conduction of electrical impulses through the atrioventricular node. Certain people with Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome should not take verapamilSome Trade Names CALAN ISOPTIN or diltiazemSome Trade Names CARDIZEM DILACOR . Digoxin   Nausea Vomiting Serious arrhythmias If the dose is too high, xanthopsia (a condition in which objects appear greenish yellow) DigoxinSome Trade Names LANOXIN slows conduction of electrical impulses through the atrioventricular node. DigoxinSome Trade Names LANOXIN is used to decrease the ventricular rate in people who have atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter and to treat paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. The drug is given to infants and children younger than 10 years who have Wolff-Parkinson-White syndrome, but older people with the syndrome should not take digoxinSome Trade Names LANOXIN . Purine nucleoside AdenosineSome Trade Names ADENOCARD Spasm of the airways (bronchospasm) Flushing (for a short time) AdenosineSome Trade Names ADENOCARD slows conduction of electrical impulses through the atrioventricular node. AdenosineSome Trade Names ADENOCARD is used to end episodes of paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia. People who have asthma are not given this drug.

Last full review/revision January 2008 by L. Brent Mitchell, MD