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Section
Cardiovascular Disorders
Cardiovascular Disorders
Approach to the Cardiac Patient
Introduction
History
Physical Examination
Vital Signs
Orthostatic changes
Pulsus paradoxus
Pulses
Peripheral pulses
Carotid pulses
Veins
Peripheral veins
Neck veins
Chest Inspection and Palpation
Inspection
Palpation
Cardiac Auscultation
Systolic heart sounds
Diastolic heart sounds
Approach to murmurs
Systolic murmurs
Diastolic murmurs
Continuous murmurs
Pericardial friction rub
Extremity and Abdominal Examination
Extremities
Abdomen
Chest Pain
Pathophysiology
Etiology
Evaluation
History
Physical examination
Red flags
Interpretation of findings
Testing
Treatment
Geriatrics Essentials
Key Points
Edema
Pathophysiology
Etiology
Evaluation
History
Physical examination
Red flags
Interpretation of findings
Testing
Treatment
Geriatrics Essentials
Key Points
Orthostatic Hypotension
Postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS)
Pathophysiology
Etiology
Evaluation
History
Physical examination
Red flags
Interpretation of findings
Testing
Treatment
Geriatrics Essentials
Key Points
Palpitations
Pathophysiology
Etiology
Causes of arrhythmias
Consequences
Evaluation
History
Physical examination
Red flags
Interpretation of findings
Testing
Treatment
Geriatric Essentials
Key Points
Syncope
Pathophysiology
Insufficient cerebral blood flow
Insufficient cerebral substrate
Etiology
Evaluation
History
Physical examination
Red flags
Interpretation of findings
Testing
Treatment
Geriatrics Essentials
Key Points
Arrhythmias and Conduction Disorders
Introduction
Anatomy and Physiology
Electrophysiology
Normal rhythm
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Bradyarrhythmias
Tachyarrhythmias
Treatment
Drugs for Arrhythmias
Class I
Class II
Class III
Class IV
Devices and Procedures
Direct-current (DC) cardioversion-defibrillation
Pacemakers
Implantable cardioverter-defibrillators (ICDs)
Radiofrequency (RF) ablation
Surgery
Atrial Fibrillation (AF)
Etiology
Classification
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Ventricular rate control
Rhythm control
Ablation procedures
Prevention of thromboembolism
Atrial Fibrillation and Wolff-Parkinson-White Syndrome (WPW)
Atrial Flutter
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Atrioventricular Block
First-degree AV block
Second-degree AV block
Third-degree AV block
Brugada Syndrome
Bundle Branch and Fascicular Block
Ectopic Supraventricular Rhythms
Atrial premature beats
Wandering atrial pacemaker
Multifocal atrial tachycardia
Atrial tachycardia
Nonparoxysmal junctional tachycardia
Reentrant Supraventricular Tachycardias (SVT, PSVT)
Pathophysiology
Wolff-Parkinson-White (WPW) syndrome
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Sinus Node Dysfunction
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Ventricular Fibrillation (VF)
Ventricular Premature Beats (VPB)
Prognosis
Treatment
Ventricular Tachycardia (VT)
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Acute
Long-term
Long QT Syndrome and Torsades de pointes Ventricular Tachycardia
Congenital
Drug-induced
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Arterial Hypertension
Introduction
Etiology
Primary hypertension
Secondary hypertension
Pathophysiology
Abnormal Na transport
Sympathetic nervous system
Renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system
Vasodilator deficiency
Pathology and complications
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
History
Physical examination
Testing
Prognosis
General Treatment
Lifestyle modifications
Drugs
Drugs for Hypertension
Diuretics
β−Blockers
Ca channel blockers
ACE inhibitors
Angiotensin II receptor blockers
Direct renin inhibitors
Adrenergic modifiers
Direct vasodilators
Hypertensive Emergencies
Hypertensive urgencies
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Renovascular Hypertension
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Arteriosclerosis
Introduction
Atherosclerosis
Pathophysiology
Risk Factors
Documented vascular disease
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Symptomatic patients
Asymptomatic patients (screening)
Treatment
Diet
Physical activity
Antiplatelet drugs
Other drugs
Nonatheromatous Arteriosclerosis
Cardiac Tumors
Cardiac Tumors
Classification
Benign primary tumors
Malignant primary tumors
Metastatic tumors
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment and Prognosis
Cardiomyopathies
Introduction
Dilated Cardiomyopathy
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Hypertrophic Cardiomyopathy
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Restrictive Cardiomyopathy
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Cardiovascular Tests and Procedures
Introduction
Cardiac Catheterization
Procedure
Specific Tests During Cardiac Catheterization
Angiography
Intravascular ultrasonography
Tests for cardiac shunts
Measurement of cardiac output and flow
Endomyocardial biopsy
Coronary artery flow measurements
Contraindications
Complications
Cardiac Imaging Tests
Chest x-rays
CT
MRI
PET
Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting (CABG)
Traditional CABG Procedure
Complications
Alternative CABG Procedures
Echocardiography
Techniques
Methodology
Stress echocardiography
Electrocardiography (ECG)
Standard ECG Components
P wave
PR interval
QRS complex
QT interval
ST segment
T wave
U wave
Specialized ECG Tests
Additional precordial leads
Esophageal lead
Signal averaging
Continuous ST-segment monitoring
QT dispersion
Heart rate variability
Holter monitor
Event recorder
Electrophysiologic Studies (EPS)
Percutaneous Coronary Interventions (PCI)
Procedure
Stents
Types of stents
Anticoagulation
Contraindications
Complications
Radionuclide Imaging
Single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)
Myocardial Perfusion Imaging
Infarct Avid Imaging
Radionuclide Ventriculography
LV
RV
Valves
Shunts
Stress Testing
Stress Methodology
Exercise stress testing
Pharmacologic stress testing
Diagnostic Methodology
Tilt Table Testing
Coronary Artery Disease
Introduction
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Risk Factors
Anatomy
Treatment
PCI
CABG
Prevention
Acute Coronary Syndromes (ACS)
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Myocardial dysfunction
MI
Electrical dysfunction
Classification
Symptoms and Signs
Unstable angina
NSTEMI and STEMI
Diagnosis
ECG
Cardiac markers
Coronary angiography
Other tests
Prognosis
Unstable angina
NSTEMI and STEMI
General Treatment
Drugs
Antiplatelet drugs
Anticoagulant drugs
β-Blockers
Nitrates
Fibrinolytics
Other drugs
Revascularization Modalities and Indications
Unstable angina and NSTEMI
STEMI
Complications
Sinus node disturbances
Atrial arrhythmias
Conduction defects
Ventricular arrhythmias
Heart failure
Papillary muscle disorders
Myocardial rupture
Ventricular aneurysm
Hypotension and cardiogenic shock
RV ischemia or infarction
Recurrent ischemia
Mural thrombosis
Pericarditis
Post-MI syndrome (Dressler's syndrome)
Rehabilitation and Postdischarge Treatment
Functional evaluation
Activity
Risk factors
Drugs
Angina Pectoris
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Unstable angina
Diagnosis
ECG
Stress testing
Angiography
Imaging
Prognosis
Treatment
Drugs
Revascularization
Variant Angina
Syndrome X
Silent Ischemia
Diseases of the Aorta and Its Branches
Introduction
Abdominal Aortic Branch Occlusion
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Aneurysms
Abdominal Aortic Aneurysms (AAA)
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Thoracic Aortic Aneurysms
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Aortic Branch Aneurysms
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Aortic Dissection
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Aortitis
Endocarditis
Introduction
Infective Endocarditis
Pathophysiology and Etiology
Endocardial factors
Microorganisms
Consequences
Classification
Symptoms and Signs
SBE
ABE and PVE
Right-sided endocarditis
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Antibiotic regimens
Cardiac valve surgery
Response to treatment
Prevention
Noninfective Endocarditis
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Marantic endocarditis
Symptoms, Signs, and Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Heart Failure
Introduction
Physiology
Pathophysiology
Systolic dysfunction
Diastolic dysfunction
LV failure
RV failure
Cardiac response
Hemodynamic responses
Renal responses
Neurohumoral responses
Changes with aging
Etiology
Classification
Symptoms and Signs
History
Examination
Diagnosis
Chest x-ray
ECG
Imaging
Blood tests
Other tests
Prognosis
End-of-life care
Treatment
General management
Arrhythmias ()
Device therapy
Surgery
Experimental therapies
Persistent HF
Drugs
Diuretics
ACE inhibitors
ARBs
Aldosterone receptor blockers
β-Blockers
Vasodilators
Digitalis preparations
Other drugs
Cor Pulmonale
Pathophysiology
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Pulmonary Edema
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Pericarditis
Pericarditis
Anatomy and Pathophysiology
Etiology
Symptoms, Signs, and Diagnosis
Acute pericarditis
Pericardial effusion
Cardiac tamponade
Constrictive pericarditis
Diagnosis of cause
Treatment
Peripheral Arterial Disorders
Introduction
Acrocyanosis
Erythromelalgia
Fibromuscular Dysplasia
Peripheral Arterial Aneurysms
Peripheral Arterial Disease
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Percutaneous intervention
Surgery
External compression therapy
Acute Peripheral Arterial Occlusion
Raynaud's Syndrome
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Clinical findings
Laboratory testing
Treatment
Thromboangiitis Obliterans
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Peripheral Venous and Lymphatic Disorders
Introduction
Arteriovenous Fistula
Chronic Venous Insufficiency and Postphlebitic Syndrome
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prevention
Treatment
Deep Venous Thrombosis (DVT)
Etiology
Pathophysiology
Complications
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Ultrasonography
D-dimer
Venography
Other testing
Determination of cause
Prognosis
Treatment
Anticoagulants
Inferior vena cava filter (IVCF)
Thrombolytic (fibrinolytic) drugs
Surgery
Prevention
Idiopathic Telangiectasias
Lymphedema
Etiology
Primary lymphedemas
Secondary lymphedema
Symptoms and Signs
Complications
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Superficial Venous Thrombosis
Varicose Veins
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
Sports and the Heart
Introduction
Athletic Heart Syndrome
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Sudden Cardiac Death in Athletes
Screening
Valvular Disorders
Introduction
Aortic Regurgitation
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Aortic Stenosis
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis
Treatment
Mitral Regurgitation
Etiology and Pathophysiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Mitral Stenosis
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Mitral Valve Prolapse (MVP)
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Pulmonic Regurgitation
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis and Treatment
Pulmonic Stenosis
Tricuspid Regurgitation
Etiology
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Prognosis and Treatment
Tricuspid Stenosis
Symptoms and Signs
Diagnosis
Treatment
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