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In hemodialysis, a patient's blood is pumped into a dialyzer containing two fluid compartments configured as bundles of hollow fiber capillary tubes or as parallel, sandwiched sheets of semipermeable membranes. In either configuration, blood in the first compartment is pumped along one side of a semipermeable membrane while a crystalloid solution (dialysate) is pumped along the other side, in a separate compartment, in the opposite direction. Concentration gradients of solute between blood and dialysate lead to desired changes in the patient's serum solutes, such as a reduction in urea nitrogen and creatinine; an increase in HCO₃; and equilibration of Na, Cl, K, and Mg. The dialysate compartment is under negative pressure relative to the blood compartment to prevent filtration of dialysate into the bloodstream and to remove the excess fluid from the patient. The dialyzed blood is then returned to the patient.

The patient is usually systemically anticoagulated during hemodialysis to prevent blood from clotting in the dialysis machine. However hemodialysis treatment may also be done with regional anticoagulation of the dialysis circuit (using heparin Some Trade Names
HEPFLUSH-10
Click for Drug Monograph
or trisodium citrate) or with saline flush, in which 50 to 100 mL of saline every 15 to 30 min clears the dialysis circuit of any blood clots.

The immediate objectives of hemodialysis are to correct electrolyte and fluid imbalances and remove toxins. Longer-term objectives in patients with renal failure are to

• Optimize the patient's functional status, comfort, and BP
• Prevent uremia and its complications
• Improve survival

The optimal “dose” of hemodialysis is uncertain, but most patients do well with 3 to 5 h of hemodialysis 3 times/wk. One way to assess the adequacy of each session is by measuring BUN before and after each session. A ≥ 65% decrease of BUN from predialysis level ([predialysis BUN − postdialysis BUN]/predialysis BUN × 100% is ≥ 65%) indicates an adequate session. Specialists may use other, more calculation-intensive formulas can also be used, such as KT/V ≥ 1.2 (where K is the urea clearance of the dialyzer in mL/min, T is dialysis time in minutes, and V is volume of distribution of urea [total body water] in mL). Hemodialysis dose can be increased by increasing time on dialysis, blood flow, membrane surface area, and membrane porosity, but benefits are unproven. Nightly hemodialysis sessions (6 to 8 h, 5 to 6 days/wk) and short (1.5- to 2.5-h) daily sessions are being studied as ways to increase effectiveness and decrease complications.

Vascular access: Hemodialysis is usually done through a surgically created arteriovenous fistula. However, dialysis can be done through a central vein catheter if an arteriovenous fistula has not yet been created or is not ready for use or if creation of an arteriovenous fistula is impossible. The primary disadvantages of central vein catheters are a relatively narrow caliber that does not allow for blood flow high enough to achieve optimal clearance and a high risk of catheter site infection and thrombosis. Central venous catheterization for hemodialysis is best done by using the right internal jugular vein. Most internal jugular vein catheters remain useful for 2 to 6 wk if strict aseptic skin care is practiced and if the catheter is used only for hemodialysis. Also, catheters with a subcutaneous tunnel and fabric cuff have a longer life span (50% functional at 1 yr) and may be useful for patients in whom creation of an arteriovenous fistula is impossible.

Surgically created arteriovenous fistulas are better than central venous catheters because they are more durable and less likely to become infected. But they are also prone to complications (thrombosis, infection, aneurysm or pseudoaneurysm). A newly created fistula may take 3 to 6 mo to mature and be useable, so in patients with chronic renal failure, the fistula should be created early, when GFR is between 25 and 30 mL/min. The surgical procedure anastomoses the radial, brachial, or femoral artery to an adjacent vein in an end-of-the-vein to the side-of-the-artery fashion. When the adjacent vein is not suitable for access creation, a piece of prosthetic graft is used. For patients who have poor veins, an autogenous saphenous vein graft is also an option.

Vascular access complications: Complications such as infection, thrombosis, and pseudoaneurysm or aneurysm, significantly limit the quality of hemodialysis that can be delivered, increase long-term morbidity and mortality, and are common enough that patients and practitioners should be vigilant for suggestive changes. These changes include pain, erythema, breaks in the skin overlying the access, absence of bruit and pulse in the access, hematoma around the access, and prolonged bleeding from the dialysis cannula puncture site. Infection is treated with antibiotics, surgery, or both.

The fistula may be monitored for signs of impending failure by serial Doppler dilution blood flow measurements, thermal or urea dilution techniques, or by measurement of the static venous chamber pressures. One of these tests is usually recommended at least monthly. Treatment of thrombosis, pseudoaneurysm, or aneurysm may involve angioplasty, stenting, and surgery.

Dialysis complications: Complications are listed in Table 2: Renal Replacement Therapy: Complications of Renal Replacement Therapy.

Table 2
Complications of Renal Replacement Therapy Complication Hemodialysis Peritoneal Dialysis Cardiovascular Air embolism Angina Arrhythmia Cardiac tamponade Hypotension * Arrhythmia Hypotension Pulmonary edema Infectious Bacteremia Colonization of temporary central venous catheters Endocarditis Meningitis Osteomyelitis Sepsis Vascular access cellulitis or abscess Catheter exit site infection* Peritonitis* Mechanical Obstruction of the arteriovenous fistula due to thrombosis or infection Stenosis or thrombosis of the subclavian vein or superior vena cava due to recurrent use of subclavian and internal jugular vein catheters Catheter obstruction by clots, fibrin, omentum, or fibrous encasement Dialysate leakage around the catheter Dissection of fluid into the abdominal wall Hematoma in the pericatheter tract Perforation of a viscus by the catheter Metabolic Hypoglycemia in diabetics who use insulin Hypokalemia Hyponatremia and hypernatremia Hypoalbuminemia Hyperglycemia Hypertriglyceridemia Obesity Pulmonary Dyspnea due to anaphylactic reaction to hemodialysis membrane Hypoxia when acetate buffered dialysate is used Atelectasis Pleural effusion Pneumonia Miscellaneous Amyloid deposits Catheter-related hemorrhage Fever due to bacteremia, pyrogens, or overheated dialysate Hemorrhage (GI, intracranial, retroperitoneal, intraocular) Insomnia Muscle cramps Pruritus Restlessness Seizures Abdominal and inguinal hernias Catheter-related intra-abdominal bleeding Hypothermia Peritoneal sclerosis Seizures *Most common complications overall.

Hypotension is most common and has multiple causes, including too-rapid water removal, osmotic fluid shifts across cell membranes, acetate in dialysate, heat-related vasodilation, and underlying conditions (eg, autonomic neuropathy, myocardial ischemia, arrhythmias).

Many patients also experience cramps, pruritus, nausea and vomiting, headache, and chest and back pain. In most cases, these complications occur for unknown reasons, but some may be part of a first-use syndrome (when the patient's blood is exposed to cuprophane or cellulose membranes in the dialyzer) or dialysis disequilibrium syndrome, a syndrome thought to be caused by cerebral edema. More severe cases of dialysis disequilibrium manifest as disorientation, restlessness, blurred vision, confusion, seizures and even death.

Dialysis amyloidosis affects patients who have been on hemodialysis for years and manifests as carpal tunnel syndrome, bone cysts, arthritis, and cervical spondyloarthropathy.

Prognosis: Overall adjusted annual mortality in hemodialysis-dependent patients tends to be about 20%. The 5-yr survival rate is lower for patients with diabetes than for patients with glomerulonephritis. Death is generally mostly attributable to cardiovascular disease, followed by infection and withdrawal from hemodialysis. Blacks have usually had a higher survival rate in all age groups. Nonhemodialysis contributors to mortality include comorbidities (eg, hyperparathyroidism, diabetes), age, undernourishment, and late referral for dialysis.

Last full review/revision December 2007 by James I. McMillan, MD

Content last modified December 2007